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Instrument Summary for Depression

Please note that this section is an archive and is no longer being updated.

Development: The original BDI was developed by Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock & Erbaugh in 1961. Development of the initial BDI was based on recorded observations of psychiatrists and consensus from clinicians regarding symptoms of depression. Items were chosen to reflect overt behavioral manifestations of depression. Items were not chosen based on a theory of the etiology of depression. The original BDI was revised in 1971 to refine wording and remove double negatives in response choices.

Purpose: The BDI measures attitudes and symptoms that are characteristic of depression including mood, pessimism, sense of failure, lack of satisfaction, guilt, sense of punishment, self-hate, self-accusations, self punitive wishes, crying spells, irritability, social withdrawal, indecisiveness, body image, work inhibition, sleep disturbance, fatigability, loss of appetite, weight loss, somatic preoccupation, and loss of libido.

Useful Facts: Although originally designed for administration by trained interviewers (clinical psychologist or sociologist), the BDI is most commonly self-administered. Total scores are the sum of 21 item scores. The scores range from 0 to 63, with most severe levels of depression indicated by scores in the 40-50 range. Other forms include a card form, computerized forms, the 13-item short form, and the most recent form, the BDI-II. There are Spanish and German translations available.

VA Relevance: The BDI has been used among the veteran population.

Availability: The original version can be found in the appendix of reference 1 below (Beck AT et al. 1961). Hartcourt Assessment Inc. is the distributor of the Beck Depression Inventory version II. The BDI-II can be obtained by contacting Hartcourt Assessment, Inc., 19500 Bulverde Road, San Antonio, TX 78259 or online at harcourtassessment.com.

References:

1. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mock J, Erbaugh J. An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psyhiatry 1961; 4: 561-571. [Abstract ]
2. Beck AT, Steer RA, Garbin MG. Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five Years of Evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review 1988;8:77-100.
3. Gatewood-Colwell G, Kaczmarek M, Ames MH. Reliability and validity of the Beck Depression Inventory for a white and Mexican-American gerontic population. Psychol Rep. 1989 Dec;65(3 Pt 2):1163-6. [Abstract ]

Development: The CESD was developed by Lenore S Radloff in 1977 for the National Institute of Mental Health. The measure is used to assess general psychological impairment, primarily depression. It is not used to make a diagnosis; its purpose is to estimate symptom prevalence and to be used as a first-stage screening device in clinical and research efforts. It has been said to measure multiple dimensions of affective symptomatology and current depressive symptoms within the last week, in the general population, with an emphasis on mood. There are 20 items pooled from various validated depression measures (Beck, Welsh, Gardner, Raskin, Zung).

Purpose: To screen for general psychological impairment, primarily depression, in order to estimate symptom prevalence.

Useful Facts: The CESD takes 10 minutes to administer and may be given in self-report or interview form. There are Dutch, English, and Spanish language translations, as well as various short versions.

VA Relevance: The CESD has been used among the veteran population.

Availability: The CESD is available online at Brown University's Center for Gerontology Health Care Research website. [PDF]

References:

1. Himmelfarb S, Murrell SA. Reliability and validity of five mental health scales in older persons. J Gerontol. 1983; 38(3):333-9. [Abstract ]
2. Engdahl BE, Page WF, Miller TW. Age, education, maltreatment, and social support as predictors of chronic depression in former prisoners of war. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1991; 26(2):63-7. [Abstract ]
3. Radloff LS. The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement. 1997 Summer;1(3):385-401.

Development: The GDS was developed by Yesavage et al. in 1982. Original GDS items were constructed by a team of clinicians and researchers involved in geriatric psychiatry. It was specifically designed for older populations, which require items that are easier to read and understand. Depression screening with this measure in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder has also been tested. There are 30 items that generally fit on one page.

Purpose: The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) was developed to assess depression in the elderly and has been extensively used with older adults.

Useful Facts: The GDS has Yes/No answer choices for all items. It is typically administered by clinicians, researchers, or trained personnel; psychiatric expertise is not necessary. "Yes" items are summed and higher scores indicate more depression. There are multiple language translations available. There are also short forms available.

VA Relevance: The GDS is specific to geriatric individuals and has been used among the veteran population.

Availability: The Geriatric Depression Scale is available online along with scoring information at Dr. Yesavage's website at Stanford University. An Adobe Acrobat version of the GDS is available through the Hartford Institute for Geriatric Nursing. [PDF]

References:

1. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL, Lum O, Huang V, Adey M, Leirer VO. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res. 1982-83;17(1):37-49. [Abstract ]
2. Sheikh JI, Yesavage JA, Brooks JO, Friedman L, Gratzinger P. Proposed factor structure of the Geriatric Depression Scale. Int Psychogeriatr. 1991;3(1):23-28. [Abstract ]
3. Snyder AG, Stanley MA, Novy DM, Averill PM, Beck JG. Measures of depression in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder: a psychometric evaluation. Depress Anxiety. 2000;11(3):114-20. [Abstract ]